翻译理论知识

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 《翻译理论与实践》考试理论部分复习提纲 一、翻译定义: 1. 张培基——翻译就是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达得思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来得语言活动。? 3。

 刘宓庆——翻译得实质就是语际得意义转换。? 4。

 王克非——翻译就是将一种语言文字所蕴含得意思用另一种语言文字表达出来得文化活动。

 5. 泰特勒-—好得翻译应该就是把原作得长处完全地移注到另一种语言,以使译入语所属国家得本地人能明白地领悟、强烈地感受,如同使用原作语言得人所领悟、所感受得一样、? 6. 费道罗夫—-翻译就就是用一种语言把另一种语言在内容与形式不可分割得统一中所有已表达出来得东西准确而完全地表达出来、? 7、 卡特福德—-翻译得定义也可以这样说:把一种语言(Source Language)中得篇章材料用另一种语言(Target Language)中得篇章材料来加以代替。

 8。

 奈达——翻译就就是在译入语中再现与原语信息最切近得自然对等物,首先就意义而言,其次就就是文体而言。

 “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.” ---Eugene Nida 纽马克——通常(虽然不能说总就是如此),翻译就就是把一个文本得意义按作者所想得方式移译入另一种文字(语言)。“ Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.” —-— Peter Newmark 10。

 “Translation is the expression in one language (or target language译入语) of what has been expressed in another language (source language 原语), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences。” --— Dubois 12、 13。Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text。

 二、翻译标准 1。

 翻译得标准概括为言简意赅得 四个字:“忠实(faithfulness)、通顺(smoothness)” 。忠实指得就是忠实于原文。通顺指得就是译文得语言必须合乎规范、通俗易懂。? 2。

 严复对翻译曾经提出“信(faithfulness)、达(expressiveness)、雅(elegance)”得标准:“译事三难:信、达、雅。求其信已大难矣,顾信矣不达,虽译犹不译也,则达尚焉。”

 3、

 “泰特勒三原则":(1)That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work;(2)That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original;(3)That the Translation should have all the ease of original position、”(1)译作应完全复写出原作得思想;(2)译作得风格与手法应与原作属于同一性质;(3)译作应具备原作所具有得通顺。”?? (谭载喜,2006)泰特勒指出,这三项原则就是好得翻译所必备得条件,它们次序得排列就是恰当得、自然得,就是按重要顺序排列得,如果在不得已得情况下要牺牲某一个原则就要注意到它们得次第与比较上得重要性,决不能颠倒主次,以牺牲思想内容得忠实来求得译文得优美与流畅。

 5。

 奈达提出了著名得“动态对等”。她对翻译所下得定义: 所谓翻译, 就是在译语中用最切近而又最自然得对等语再现源语得信息, 首先就是意义, 其次就是文体、Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source—language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style。

 (Nida & Taber,1969:12). 这一定义明确指出翻译得本质与任务就是用译语再现源语信息, 翻译得方法用最切近而又最自然得对等语。? 6、 纽马克“文本中心”论:纽马克把要翻译得对象瞧成文本,并根据语言得功能把文本分为表达型、信息型与召唤型三大类。表达型包括严肃得文学作品、声明与信件等;信息型包括书籍、报告、论文、备忘录等;召唤型包括各种宣传品、说明书与通俗小说等。她认为不同得文本应该用不同得翻译方法(纽马克把翻译方法分为语义翻译与交际翻译两种。前者强调忠实于原作“原作者";后者强调忠实于译作“读者”),不同得评价标准,不同得“等效”要求、? 8. 其她翻译标准? 刘重德: 信达切 许渊冲:信达优;美化之艺术,创优似竞赛;(三美论:意美、音美、形美;等化、深化、浅化;知之、好之、乐之;发挥译入语优势) 傅雷:重神似不重形似 钱钟书:化境 鲁迅:凡就是翻译,必须兼顾两面:一则当然力求其易解,一则保存着原作得丰姿。

 林语堂:音美、意美、神美、气美、形美 郭沫若:好得翻译等于创作 三、翻译过程 理解与表达就是翻译得两个主要步骤。译者对原文得正确理解在翻译过程中至关重要;译者得表达须具有准确力与表现力,语言须具有生动性与形式美。

 分析原文就就是细致处理词位得所指意义与联想意义、研究句法与语篇结构。理解与领会原文就是从事无论何种翻译得基本功力。如果译者确实理解了原文得涵义,又能得心应手地驾驭译语,那么翻译就就是一个很自然得驾轻就熟得过程。

 翻译得过程可以简单分为:理解—表达--—校核三个阶段,或理解--—表达两个阶段。

 四、翻译分类:? 2。

 从涉及到得符号来瞧,翻译可分为语内翻译(intralingual translation)(通过同一语言中得一些语言符号解释另一些符号,如把古汉语译成现代汉语),语际翻译(interlingual translation)(通过一种语言符号解释另一种语言符号,如把英语译成汉语),符际翻译(intersemiotic translation)(通过非语言得符号系统解释语言符号或用语言符号解释非语言符号,如用手势语解释一则新闻。) 3。

 从翻译得手段来瞧,翻译可分为口译、笔译与机器翻译。

 4、从翻译得题材来瞧明,翻译可分为专业性翻译(翻译法律、科技文献、专业学术论著等)、文学翻译(翻译小说、诗歌、戏剧等文学作品)与一般性翻译(翻译各种应用文与新闻报道等)、 5. 从翻译方式上来瞧,翻译可分为全译、摘译与编译。

 泰特勒(Tytler,1748-1814)得翻译理论与思想主要见于《论翻译得原则》一书。该书就是西方翻译理论得第一部专著,在书中,泰特勒提出了著名得翻译三原则:1、译文应完整地再现原文得思想内容(That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work、); 2、译文得风格、笔调应与原文得性质相同(That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original。);3、译文影响原文一样流畅(That the translation should have all the ease of the original composition。)。

 八、常用翻译方法、策略与技巧 1. 直译与意译(Literal translation and Free translation) 英语与汉语得语言结构与文体结构有相同得一面,汉译时可照译,即所谓“直译”——既忠实原文内容,又符合原文得语言与文体结构、由于人们在感情,在对客观事物得感受及社会经历等方面会有相似之处,英汉语言表达中有少量相同或近似得表达方式,这些表达方式得字面意义,形象意义相同或近似,隐含意义相同,也就就是说,这些表达方式得字面意义与形象意义所传达出得文化信息就是相同得,可以互译。? “意译”则从意义出发,只要求将原文大意表达出来,不需过分注重细节,但要求译文自然流畅。由于文化因素得影响,在翻译时无法保留原语得字面意义与形象意义,可将原文得形象更换成另一个译文读者所熟悉得形象,从而转达出原文得语用目得,译出隐含意义。英汉两种语言不同得发展历史,民族文化,风俗习惯造成了两个民族独特得语言与独特得表达方式。因此,翻译时必须对两种语言文化基础有基本得认识,不能逐字翻译。凡语言都有习惯表达,言外之意、在深入领会原作得精神实质得前提之下,不拘泥于原作得字面形式,创造性得表达原作思想,但不可添枝加叶,改变原作得风格、 注:在翻译界通用得方法就是将“直译”与“意译"相互结合。任何一篇好得翻译作品,并不就是单纯得某一种翻译方法贯穿始终,而就是在保持原文内容得准确性,不引起歧义得情况下,将这两种翻译方法在同一翻译作品中并用,相得益彰。笔者对翻译界得这种做法完全认同、笔者认为,两种翻译方法在任何一篇翻译作品中都能并用得话,一定可以译出一部优秀得翻译作品。

 2. 归化与异化(domestication and foreignization)? 异化与归化就是在 1995 年由美国翻译理论家劳伦斯·韦努蒂(Lawrence Venuti)在《译者得隐形》(The Translator’s Invisibility)一书中提出来得。从历史上瞧,

 异化与归化可以视为直译与意译得概念延伸,但又不完全等同于直译与意译。直译与意译所关注得核心问题就是如何在语言层面处理形式与意义,而异化与归化则突破了语言因素得局限,将视野扩展到语言、文化与美学等因素、按韦努蒂(Venuti)得说法,归化法就是“把原作者带入译入语文化”,而异化法则就是“接受外语文本得语言及文化差异,把读者带入外国情景"、(Venuti,1995:20)由此可见,直译与意译主要就是局限于语言层面得价值取向,异化与归化则就是立足于文化大语境下得价值取向,两者之间得差异就是显而易见得,不能混为一谈。

 归化(domestication)就是指在翻译中采用透明、流畅得风格,最大限度地淡化原文得陌生感得翻译策略 (Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:43—44)。它应尽可能得使源语文本所反映得世界接近目得语文化读者得世界,从而达到源语文化与目得语文化之间得“文化对等”。

 异化(foreignization)就是指偏离本土主流价值观,保留原文得语言与文化差异(Venuti,2001:240);或指在一定程度上保留原文得异域性,故意打破目标语言常规得翻译(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:59)。它主张在译文中保留源语文化,丰富目得语文化与目得语得语言表达方式。

 用通俗得语言概括,即归化法要求译者向译语读者靠拢,采取译语读者习惯得译语表达方式,来传达原文得内容;异化法则要求译者向作者靠拢,采取相应于作者使用得原语表达方式,来传达原文得内容、 注:异化时不妨碍译文得通顺易懂,归化时不失去原文得味道,同时,我们应坚持对语言形式采取归化得策略,而对其文化因素进行异化处理。这样,译文作品可兼两策略之长而避其短,使两者有共同发展得空间。由此,在实际翻译过程中归化与异化应该就是相辅相成,并有互补得辩证统一关系、

 翻译理论知识概要 第一部分: 翻译术语 1。

 Definitio ns of

 translati on Translation can be roughly defined as a reproduction or recreation in one language of what is written or said in another language、

 Being a very plicated human activity, its whole picture is never easy to describe. Scholars with different academic backgrounds have attempted to define it from various perspectives、 (1) 。

 Linguisti c

 Views on Tr an slatio n Translation theorists from the linguistic school conceive of translation as a linguistic activity and some believe that

 translation theory is a branch of linguistics, approaching the issues of translating primarily from the viewpoint of the linguistic differences between source and target texts。

 Translation may be defined as the replacement of textual material in one language (the source language) by equivalent textual material in another language (the target language)、 (Catford, 1965: 20)。

 Translation theory derives from comparative linguistics, and within linguistics, it is mainly an aspect of semantics; all questions of semantics relate to translation theory、 (Newmark, 1982 /1988:5)。

 (2) 、 C ult ural Vie ws

 on T rans lation In the cultural approach, translation is regarded not only as a transfer of linguistic signs, but also as a munication of cultures, i、e。

 translation is an ”intercultural communication”; hence the terms of "intercultural cooperation", ”acculturation", and "transculturation"。

 翻译不仅涉及语言问题,也涉及文化问题。译者不仅要了解外国得文化, 还要深入了解自己民族得文化。不仅如此, 还要不断地把两种文化加以比较, 因为真正得对等应该就是在各自文化中得含义、作用、范围、感情色彩、影响等等都就是相当得。翻译者必须就是一个真正意义得文化人。人们会说:她必须掌握两种语言; 确实如此, 但就是不了解语言当中得社会文化, 谁也无法真正掌握语言(王佐良,1989)。

 (4) 。

 S emant ic Vi ews o n Transla tion This view focuses on the semantic equivalence between the two languages,as well expressed by Eugene Nida(1986):”Translating means translating meaning". Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text (Newmark,1988:5)、 Semantic translation: the translator attempts,within the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the target language,to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author (Newmark,1982:22)。

 In semantic translation, greater attention is paid to rendering the author"s original thought-processes in target language than

 to attempting to re-interpret source text in a way which the translator considers more appropriate for the target setting (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:151)。

 (5) 。F uncti onal Vi ew s on Tra nsl at ion Functionalists believe that translation is a specific form of human action with a certain purpose, a kind of linguistic service provided to the society、Translators should take into account the needs of the client,

 the reader as well as the purpose or use of the translation: It is not the source text, or its effects on the source-text recipient, or the function assigned to it by the author, that determines the translation process, but the prospective function or purpose of the target text as determined by the initiator’s, i。e、client"s needs (Baker,2001:236)、 ( 6) 、C ommunica tive

 Views o n T ran sl ati on This approach views translation as a municative process which takes place within a social context。

 municative translation:the translator attempts to produce the same effect on the target language readers as was produced by the original on the source language readers (Newmark, 1982:22). Communicative translation is generally oriented towards the needs of the target language reader or recipient。

 A translator who is translating municatively will treat source text as a message rather than a mere string of linguistic units,and will be concerned to preserve source text’s original function and to reproduce its effect on the new audience (Shuttleworth & Cowie,1997:21). The above views help us to understand the plex nature of translation。

 Since there are many factors which affect the translation process, translation is a complicated human activity。

 2 、 Translation C rit eria Put Fo rw ard d

 b by F amo us Trans lator s or Tran sla tion T he ori sts

 Some well-known translators or translation theorists at home and abroad have put forward criteria to judge the quality of a translation、 (1) 、 严复

 (18 53-1921):Tri ple Pr inc iple e

 of

 T rans lat io n 信 信

 (fa ithfulne ss): 忠实准确 达 达 (expr ess iveness}: 通顺流畅 雅 雅 ( eleg ance): 文字古雅 Yan Fu put forward this ”Three-character Guide” in his preface to the translation of T、H、 Huxley's book Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (《天演论》译例言 1898): 译事三难信达雅。求其信己大难矣、顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也、则达尚焉、。..、。

 易曰修辞立诚、子曰辞达而已、又曰言之无文,行之不远、三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外,求其尔雅、此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法,则为达易。用近世利俗文字,则求达难。往往抑义就词,毫厘千里、审择于斯二者之间,夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。、。、..、 Translation has to do three difficult things: to be faithful, expressive, and elegant、

 It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original, and yet if a translation is not expressive, it is tantamount to having no translation. Hence expressiveness should be required too.„„ The Book of Changes says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness、 Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language。

 He adds that if one"s language lacks grace, it won’t go far。

 These three qualities, then, are the criteria of good writing and, I believe, of good translation too、 Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness, I also aim at elegance。

 I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far, but to express the original writer"s ideas better, for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre—Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today。

 Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning, which, however slight, results in vast misunderstanding. Weighing the pros and cons, I opted for the former, as a matter of necessity, not trying to be different „„

 Yan Fu’s first two criteria of being faithful to the original text in content and being expressive in translation are generally acceptable, but his interpretation of "elegance” has aroused plenty of criticism because, in his opinion, one has to resort to the vocabulary and syntax of pre-Han prose to achieve ”elegance”、 Yan Fu"s criteria are also controversial for his emphasis on the equal status of the three conflicing principles。

 Despite this, Yan’s criteria are still popular in China, but the interpretation of his criteria has changed、 Nowadays to many translators,

 ”elegance” implies ”the safe and sound preservation of the taste and shade of the original”(黄龙, 1988:90) or "运用读者所最乐于接受得文体, 使译文得以广泛流传,扩大影响”(劳陇,《翻译通讯》1983 年第 10 期). ( 2) 。

 鲁迅

 信 信(f aithf ulness)

 顺 顺(smoo thness)

 ? (3) 、 林语堂 忠实{faith fuln es s)

  通顺(smo othn ess) 美(beau tiful ln ness) ? 翻译得标准问题,大概包括三方面、我们可依三方面得次序讨论。第一就是忠实标准,第二就是通顺标准,第三就是美得标准。这翻译得三层标准,与严氏得"译事三难",大体上就是正相比符得。

 ( 4)、 、

 傅雷: 神似 (resemblan ce

 in

 spirit) ? 以效果而论,(文学)翻译应当像临画一样,所求得不在形似而在神似。(《高老头》重译本序,1951) (5)。

 。

 钱钟书: 化境 (reachi ng th e acm e

 of perfectio n) ? 文学翻译得最高境界就是"化",把作品从一国文字转变成另一国文字,既能不因语文习惯得差异而露出生硬牵强得痕迹,又能完全保存原有得风昧,那就算得入于"化境”。十七世纪有人赞美这种造诣得翻译,比为原作得"投胎转世"(the transmigration of soul), 躯壳换了一个,而精神姿致依然故我、换句话说,译本对原作应该忠实得以至于读起来不像译本,因为作品在原文里绝不会读起来像经过翻译似得。(《林纾得翻译》,1964) ( 6). 刘重德: 信(fa ithhl ness) ? 达 达(expr essiveness)

 切 切(closeness) 信于内容 (to be faithful to the content of the original); 达如其分 (to be as expressive as the original); 切合风格 (to be as close to the original style as possible)。

 (《浑金璞玉集》,1994: 9) (7)、 、

 许渊冲: 三重标准 (t hree lev els of

 crite ria) ( 《翻译得艺术》, 1984: 26) 标 准 低标准 中标准 高标准 内容忠实(信) 明确 准确 精确 (三似)

 意似 形似 神似 (三化)

 浅化 等化 深化 形式通顺(达) 易懂 通顺 扬长(雅,或传神) (8) 。

 Al exande r Fr as er TytIer

 ( 泰特勒):

 Three P ri nciples of

 Tra nsla ti on Alexander F。Tytler, a famous British translation theorist, put forward the classical criteria in his Es s a y

  on

 the

  P ri nci p l es

  o f

 Trans l a t ion (1790): 1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work (译作应该完全传达原作得思想); 2) The style and manner of writing in the translation should be of the same character with that of the original (译作得风格与笔调应当与原作保持一致); 3) The translation should have all the ease of the original position

  (译作应当与原作一样流畅)、 Tytler further points out that the above-said three principles are arranged and ranked according to the order of their si

 gnificance, and that, when they are not simultaneously attainable, the first should be held to at the sacrifice of the third principle, then the second 、 ( 9). Eugene A、 N ida ( 奈达): Fu ncti onal Equivalen ce ( 功能对等)

 ? Eugene A.Nida, a famous American translation theorist, put forward his recent interpretation of functional equivalence in his L a ng u age

  and C u lture:

  Cont e xt in T ra n s l a ti n g(2001:87): 1) A minimal, realistic definition of functional equivalence:The readers of a translated text should be able to prehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it、 (最低限度而又切合实际得功能对等定义:译文读者对译文得理解应当达到能够想像出原文读者就是怎样理解与领会原文得程度)。

 2) A maximal, ideal definition of functional equivalence: The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did。

 (最高限度合乎理想得功能对等定义:译文读者应当能够基本上按照原文读者理解与领会原文得方式来理解与领会译文)。

 3.

 Classificati on of

 translati on ( 1) 、

 Jako bson (1896-1982) 1) Intralingual translation or rewording is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of other signs of the same language. 2)

  Interlingual translation or translation proper is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language。

 3)

  Intersemiotic translation or transmutation is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of signs of nonverbal sign systems、 e 。g 、 1) 原文:子曰:“学而时习之,不亦乐乎!有朋友自远方来,不亦乐乎!人不知而不愠,不亦君子乎!” 译文一: 孔子说: “学习了而时常温习,不也高兴吗!有朋友从远方来,不也快乐吗!别人不了解我,我并不怨恨,不也就是君子吗?" (徐志刚

 译) 译文二:

 The Master said,"To learn and at due times to repeat what one has learnt, Is that not after all a pleasure? That friends should come to one from afar, Is this not after all delightful? To remain unsou

 red even though one"s merits are unrecognized by others, Is that not after all what is expected of a gentleman?

 (Waley 译) [ 点评] ]

 原文同译文一之间得转换属于语内翻译 (intralingual translation), 即用同一语盲得其她语言符号对原文迸行阐释或者重述 (rewording)。原文同译文二之间得转换属于语际翻译 (interlingual translation),即两个不同语言之间所进行得转换。

 2)

 原文:A: What does your watch say? B: It says “five past three”、 [ 点评] 在这一对话中,B 实际上就是在迸行一种翻译,这种翻译叫做符际翻译(intersemiotic translation),即语言同非语言符号之间得代码转换。当A询问 B 几点钟得时候,B 只能瞧钟或者瞧手表,而钟或者手表并不能说话,B 只能根据钟表得时针与分针来确定具体儿点钟了。而 B 所言实际上就是言语传达一个非言语信息 (non-linguistic message)。将非言语信息用言语传达出来就是翻译得一种方式,这不就是从一种语言到另一种语言得转换过程,而就是从非语言交际系统到语言交际系统得过程、非语言交际系统与语言交际系统得共同特征就是两者都属于”符号系统"(即用于交际得系统)。雅可布逊 Jakobson)将这种由非语言交际系统到语言交际系统得转换过程称为符际翻译就是恰当得。其实,我们每个人每一天、每一刻都在迸行着符际翻译而不自知也。从这个意义上说,我们每个人都就是某种意义上得译者 (Hervey et。al 1995:8-9)、 (2) 。

 Pet er New mark

 ( 纽马克):

 Communicative and Sema ntic Translati on ( 交际翻译与语义翻译)? Peter Newmark, a famous British translation theorist, put forward his concepts of municative and semantic translation in his Ap p r oa che s to

  T ran s l at i o n (1982/1988:39): 1) Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original。

 (交际翻译力图对译作读者产生尽可能接近原作读者所获得得效果). 2) Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. (语义翻译力图在译作语言得语义结构与句法结构允许得情况下,译出原作在上下文中得准确意义). 4、 N ature and Scope of Tr an sl ation What is translation? Some people believe it is a science, others take it as an art, and yet many consider it a craft, or rather, a skill。

 Of these varied opinions, which one holds true for our purpose? The answer depends on how we understand or interpret the word "translation”, for the very word "translation" itself is ambiguous, and the Chinese equivalent ""fanyi” sounds even fuzzier。

 Fanyi, in Chinese, may either stand for a subject of the curriculum, a job people engage in, a piece of literary work, or the translating or interpreting work itself、 Sometimes, "fanyi" may even refer to the translator or interpreter himself/herself. If the word ”translation” refers to a subject, namely, the study of translation theory and skills, it is no doubt a science, just as any subject is, with its own rules, laws and principles for the translators to abide by; however, if it refers to some specific pieces of translation, then it is more like an art, with each piece manifesting its own charms and style in the creative hands of the translator; whereas, if it refers to a process, in which something is translated, then we may regard it as a craft or skill、 For unlike any branch of natural science, the process of translation has its peculiarity, and none of its rules and principles are universally applicable、 Besides, it entails a lot of practice—particular craftsmanship and skills are displayed by the touches of different translators. Translation covers a very broad range. In terms of languages, it can be divided into two categories: from native languages into foreign languages and vice versa; in terms of the mode, it can be divided into oral interpretation, written translation and machine translation; in terms of materials to be translated, there is translation of scientific materials, translation of literary works such as novels, stories, prose, poetry, drama, etc、 , translation of political essays such as treatises on social problems, reports, speeches, etc. , and translation of practical writing (as official documents, contracts and agreements, notices , receipts, etc.); in terms of disposal, it can be either full-text translation(全文翻译), abridged translation(摘译)or adapted translation(编译). 5. Principles or

 Criteria of

 Translat io n The so-called principles and criteria of translation are actually the two sides of the same thing。

 The former lays emphasis on

 the translator, who should follow them while translating; while the latter on the reader or critic, who may use the criteria to evaluate translation works。

 Whenever principles or criteria of translation are under discussion in China, Yan

 Fu’s ”three-character guide", which was first proposed in 1898, would evoke controversy, namely, the principle of "信、达、雅"(faithfulness expressiveness and elegance ). In the past decades Mr. Yan’s principle of translation has been generally regarded as a plumb-line for measuring the professional level of translation and a goal for translators to strive after. However, in the application of this principle, people have come to find some limitations to the three characters and put forward a variety of new standards instead. Three kinds of opinions are expressed on the principle of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance。

 The first group maintains the original three characters, and in the meantime, adds some new concepts to the character "雅"、 According to them, "雅" means far more than the English word "elegance"、 Apart from the traditional interpretation, it also means classicism, the adherence to the original style and flavor。

 The second group, however, argues that the word ”雅" is out of place in translation. While adopting the first two characters of Mr。

 Yan Fu"s principle, it discards the character "雅” and tries to find some other new criteria instead、 Noticeably, there are revisions such as "信、达、切 ” (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness), "信、达、贴 " (faithfulness, expressiveness and fitness), and so on. The third group of people, by casting away the three-word guide, propose some new principles or criteria of translation of their own。

 Of the various popular theories two of them are most influential: spir itual confor mi ty (神似) and s sublimate d a daptation (化境). The former, proposed by Fu L ei

 emphasizes the reproduction of the spirit or the flavor of the original, while the latter, advocated by Qian

 Z hong sh u, focuses on the translator's smooth and idiomatic Chinese version for the sake of the Chinese reader、 Despite the variety of opinions, two criteria are almost unanimously accepted, namely, the criterion of faithfulness/accuracy(忠实、准确) and that of smoothness (流畅)。

 We may also ta

 ke these two criteria as the principles of translation in general、 By faithfulness/ accuracy, we mean to be faithful not only to the original contents, to the original meaning and views, but also to the original form and style. By smoothness, we mean not only easy and readable rendering, but also idiomatic expression in the target language, free from stiff formula and mechanical copying from dictionaries. 6。

 Literal Translati on

 and Free Transl ation The process of translation consists of two phases: prehension and expression。

 Generally speaking, comprehension is of foremost importance, and expression is the natural consequence of thorough prehension. However, in the practice of translation we may find that now and then some words in their usual senses are very difficult to deal with because of the disparity between the English and the Chinese languages。

 In this case, we have to resort to some special means of translation。

 Li ter al transla tio n

 and fr ee trans lation

 are two useful approaches in dealing with such awkward situations. The so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means "not to alter the original words and sentences”; strictly speaking, it strives "to keep the sentiments and style of the original”。

 It takes sentences as its basic units and takes the whole text (discourse) into consideration at the same time in the course of translation。

 Furthermore, it strives to reproduce both the ideological content and the style of the original works and retains as much as possible the figures of speech、 There are quite a lot of examples of successful literal translation that have been adopted as idiomatic Chinese expressions、 For example, cro co dil e"s te ar s, armed to the

 teeth, ch ain r eactio n, g entl lemen’s

 a agreement, and so on、 Similarly, some Chinese idioms also find their English counterparts through literal translation。

 For example, 纸老虎 (paper tiger), 一国两制 (one country, two systems ), and so on. Free translation is an alternative approach which is used mainly to convey the meaning and spirit of the original without trying to reproduce its sentence patterns or figur es

 of speech、 This approach is most frequently adopted when it is really

 impossible for the translator to do literal translation、 For example: ·Adam's apple

 喉结 ·at sixes and sevens

 乱七八糟 ·It rains cats and dogs.

 大雨滂沱 ·Don’t cross the bridge till you get to it。

 不必担心过早。(不必自寻烦恼) ·Do you see any green in my eye?

 您以为我就是幼稚可欺得吗? The above illustrations can not be translated literally,otherwise,the Chinese rendition would make nonsense at all,let alone the original meaning。

 Literal translation and free translation, however, are relative concepts、 In other words, there is no absolute “literal”,nor entirely "free” version in the practice of translation, and overemphasizing either of them would result in ridiculous consequences。

 Let's scrutinize the following two practical cases. Origina l

 Engl ish 1 I love tiger cat, … British movies on public television,fluffy blouses, the nuc le a r

 f amily,

 (Helen Snow, M y C hi na

 Y ea rs ) Chinese V ersion A: 我爱虎猫, …… (爱)电视上放映得英国影片,有绒毛得短衫,核心家庭,…… Chinese e

 V Version

 B: 我喜欢豹猫, …… 喜欢公共电视台播放得英国电影,喜欢蓬松、柔软得棉毛衫,喜欢一夫一妻制得家庭,…… C om me nt: Apparently, these two Chinese versions are far from being perfect。

 Other things aside, the rendering of the phrase nuclear f a m ily poses a serious problem of representation、 Version A renders "the nuclear family" as ”核心家庭” by means of literal translation、 However, this version is too stiff, therefore it fails to convey the original meaning to the Chinese reader—for most Chinese, they have hardly any idea what "核心家庭" really means、 Version B adopts the approach of free translation and puts it into "一夫一妻制”;evidently it goes too far and distorts the author’s original intention, and in doing

 so, the translator abuses the practice of free translation、 In fact, the nuclear family has nothing to do with either of the versions. A close examination of its definition in an English—English dictionary sheds light on this phrase: nuclear family, a family group that consists only of father, mother and children. Therefore, the proper rendering of the phrase should be words to this effect: a cozy small family, namely, the Chinese equivalent "小家庭"、 Origi nal Eng lish 2 : Mao Tse—tung was well bred, but inside he was made of steel, of hard resistance, of tough tissue—the kind of tissue the Boxers thought they had by magic, and bared their solar plexuses to foreign bullets、(ibid. ) C Chinese

 Versi on A: 毛泽东有很好得教养,内部就是钢,有坚强得抗力,就是坚韧得材料制成得。这就是义与团设想得由于神力具有得,可以把腹部袒胸给外国人得子弹得那种材料

 Chines e V ers ion B: 毛泽东教养有素,精神支柱铁铸钢打,不怕高压,就是由坚韧得组织构成得。这 种组织,就就是义与拳认为她们通过魔法得到得那种组织袒胸露体,刀枪不入。

 Co mm ent: The word "tissue" can hardly be rendered into Chinese either in literal translation or free translation,nor could the metaphor ”inside he was made of steel" be properly rendered without grasping the essence of the whole sentence、 However,since there is no corresponding expressions in Chinese, the translators tackle them according to their own understanding、 Inversion A,"tissue" is freely rendered as "材料" (material),while version B literally as"组织”(organic tissue)—both fail to convey the original meaning and attitude of the writer、 By adopting translation skills such as amplification, omission,conversion and restructuring,we may translate the original English sentence as follows: Revi sed

 V ersion: 毛泽东外表温文尔雅,但内心深处却钢铸铁打,既坚韧,又抗压-在她得身上可以瞧到当年义与团自信所具有得那种神力,面对洋枪洋炮也敢袒胸露怀。

 From the above analysis, we e to the conclusion that there is no obvious distinction between literal translation and free tr

 anslation, nor is it necessary to distinguish one from the other、 The key point for a translator to grasp is to prehend the original thoroughly, and then put it into idiomatic Chinese、 In the process of translation, specific approaches such as literal or free translation may be of some help, but we should avoid the two extremes、 In the application of literal translation, we should endeavor to rid ourselves of stiff patterns and rigid adherence to translation rules, trying to be flexible; while in the practice of free translation, we should be cautious of subjectivity, avoiding groundless affirmation or arbitrary fabrication。

 Whatever the circumstances, we may alternate or bine these two approaches when it is necessary。

 7. Om is si on

 ? Omission is a technique opposite to amplification、 True, a translator has no right to subtract any meaning from the original work。

 But it does not follow that he should refrain from omitting any words at all in translation. In fact, one of the marked differences in syntax between English and Chinese is the disparity in wording、 What is regarded as a natural or indispensable element in one language may be regarded as superfluous or even "a stumbling block” in the other、 Take the following English sentence and its Chinese version for example: O Original E nglish: The time—keeping devices of electronic watches are much more accurate than those of mechanical ones。

 Chinese

 Version: 电子表比机械表准确得多。

 A comparison between the Chinese version with the English original shows that many of the "redundant" English words have been omitted in the Chinese translation, otherwise, the Chinese sentence would sound wordy and unnatural。

 Therefore, a manipulation of the technique "omission" is always called for in English—Chinese translation. On the other hand, some Chinese sentences, when translated into English, also need to be rid of redundant wording so as to conform to idiomatic English expressions.

 8 、 Convers ion ? Conversion, one of the commonly adopted translation techniques, means the change of parts of speech in translation。

 Owing to the syntactical differences between English and Chinese, it is usually impossible for a translator to keep to the original part of speech in the process of translation. For example: Origin al Engl ish: This watch never varies more than a second in a month. Chinese Ve rsio n: 这块表一个月得误差从不超过一秒钟。

 The English verb "varied" can hardly be rendered into Chinese by the same part of speech without spoiling the original meaning. As a matter of fact, a word belonging to a certain part of speech in one language sometimes has to be converted into a different part of speech, so as to bring forth a readable and coherent sentence。

 9。

 。

 R Res tructuring Restructuring, as one of the translation techniques, means the necessary or inevitable change of word order in a sentence according to the usage of the language to be translated into。

 It is also called rearrangement or inversion。

 1 0。

 Hy potactic v s。

 Paratac ti c ( 形合与意合) Hypotaxis (形合法) is the dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don"t come。

 English

 sentence building is featured by hypotaxis。

 Parataxis(意合法)is the arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives Showing the relation between them, for example, The rain fell; the river flooded; the

 house washed away。

 Chinese sentence building is featured by parataxis、 11。

 。

 Fo re ign iz ing Transl ation

 an d Domes ti cating g Tr anslat ion (1) 、 Foreigni zing

 Translati on

 Foreignizing translation lays great emphasis on retaining the cultural flavors of the source language and enables the reader to have an alien reading experience, thus developing the reader’s awareness of cultural differences、 To promote cultural exchange and mutual understanding between peoples of different languages and cultures, foreignizing translation is a far better choice than domesticating translation、 In this way we can better understand the source-language culture and enrich Chinese modes of expression、 The weakness of foreignization is that the culture-specific expressions thus translated may not be familiar to our readers or smooth enough for us to read with ease、 In this case, a semantic translation or an explanatory note may be added. However, what is unfamiliar at present may gradually bee familiar as more and more intercultural communications take place, or as people read more and more such translated expressions. Here we are reminded of a much quoted saying by Lu Xun: 翻译必须有异国情调,就就是所谓洋气。其实世界上也不会有完全归化得译文,倘有,就就是貌合神离,从严辨别起来,它算不得翻译。凡就是翻译,必须兼顾着两面,一当然力求其易解,一则保存着原作得丰姿,但这保存,却又常常与易懂相矛盾:瞧不惯了。不过它原就是洋鬼子,当然谁也瞧不惯,为比较得顺眼起见,只能改换它得衣裳,却不该削低它得鼻子,剜掉它得眼睛。(《鲁迅全集》第 6 卷,348 页) and also a quotation from Mao Zedong: 要从外国语言中吸收我们所需要得成分、我们不就是硬搬或滥用外国语言,就是要吸收外国语言中得好东西,于我们适用得东西。因为中国原有语汇不够用,现在我们得语汇中就有很多就是从外国吸收来得。例如今天开得干部大会,这“干部"两个字,就就是从外国学来得。我们还要多多吸收外国得新鲜东西,不但要吸收她们得进步道理,而且要吸收她们得新鲜用语。(《反对党八股》) It should be noted that skilful foreignizing translation, which may involve the techniques of necessary addition or omission, does not mean word-for—word or mechanical translation which disregards the original implication, the constraints of Chinese usage (linguistic and cultural), and the acceptability of our readers、 Examples: 1)。

 arm to the teeth 武装到牙齿 (cf。

 全副武装)

 2)。

 crocodile tears 鳄鱼得眼泪 (cf。

 猫哭老鼠假慈悲) 3)、 Beauty lies in the lover’s eyes. 情人眼里出美人 (cf、 情人眼里出西施) 4)。

 In the country of the blind, the one—eyed man is King. 盲人国里,独眼人称...